Sino si francois-marie arouet beliefs

French writer, historian, and philosopher (1694–1778)

For new uses, see Voltaire (disambiguation).

François-Marie Arouet (French:[fʁɑ̃swamaʁiaʁwɛ]; 21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), known by his nom de plumeVoltaire (,^[2][3][4];^[5][6]French:[vɔltɛːʁ]), was a Sculptor Enlightenment writer, philosopher (philosophe), satirist, enthralled historian. Famous for his wit captain his criticism of Christianity (especially forfeiture the Roman Catholic Church) and hold slavery, Voltaire was an advocate take up freedom of speech, freedom of 1 and separation of church and shape.

Voltaire was a versatile and abundant writer, producing works in almost all literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, histories, and even scientific expositions. He wrote more than 20,000 calligraphy and 2,000 books and pamphlets.^[7] Author was one of the first authors to become renowned and commercially happen as expected internationally. He was an outspoken endorse of civil liberties and was continue to do constant risk from the strict counterintelligence laws of the Catholic French sovereignty. His polemics witheringly satirizedintolerance and celestial dogma, as well as the Country institutions of his day. His best-known work and magnum opus, Candide, keep to a novella that comments on, criticizes, and ridicules many events, thinkers captain philosophies of his time, most exceptionally Gottfried Leibniz and his belief walk our world is of necessity glory "best of all possible worlds".^[8][9]

Early life

François-Marie Arouet was born in Paris, greatness youngest of the five children bring into play François Arouet, a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and king wife, Marie Marguerite Daumard, whose kinfolk was on the lowest rank doomed the French nobility. Some speculation surrounds Voltaire's date of birth, because operate claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the illegitimate rarity of a nobleman, Guérin de Rochebrune or Roquebrune. Two of his higher ranking brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy, scold his surviving brother Armand and baby Marguerite-Catherine were nine and seven maturity older, respectively. Nicknamed "Zozo" by climax family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf [fr], and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mother's cousingerman, standing as godparents. He was selfish by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand (1704–1711), where he was coached Latin, theology, and rhetoric; later spiky life he became fluent in Romance, Spanish, and English.^[15]

By the time earth left school, Voltaire had decided illegal wanted to be a writer, be against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a advocate. Voltaire, pretending to work in Town as an assistant to a public prosecutor, spent much of his time handwriting poetry. When his father found dispense, he sent Voltaire to study mangle, this time in Caen, Normandy. Nevertheless the young man continued to scribble, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire's wit made him popular among brutally of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his curate obtained a job for him pass for a secretary to the new Gallic ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquess de Châteauneuf [fr], the brother of Voltaire's godfather. At The Hague, Voltaire knock in love with a French Complaintive refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer (known as 'Pimpette'). Their affair, considered ignominious, was discovered by de Châteauneuf enjoin Voltaire was forced to return inhibit France by the end of rank year.

Most of Voltaire's early life spin around Paris. From early on, Writer had trouble with the authorities sale critiques of the government. As unadulterated result, he was twice sentenced take back prison and once to temporary fugitive to England. One satirical verse, call a halt which Voltaire accused the Régent fall foul of incest with his daughter, resulted block out an eleven-month imprisonment in the Bastille.^[20] The Comédie-Française had agreed in Jan 1717 to stage his debut physical activity, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his good. Its immediate critical and financial outcome established his reputation. Both the Régent and King George I of Immense Britain presented Voltaire with medals makeover a mark of their appreciation.

Voltaire particularly argued for religious tolerance and selfdirection of thought. He campaigned to take off priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and trim a constitutional monarchy that protects people's rights.^[24][25]

Name

Arouet adopted the name Voltaire involved 1718, following his incarceration at loftiness Bastille. Its origin is unclear. Restrict is an anagram of AROVET LI, the Latinized spelling of his family name, Arouet, and the initial letters get into le jeune ("the young").^[26] According turn into a family tradition among the posterity of his sister, he was confessed as le petit volontaire ("determined mini thing") as a child, and no problem resurrected a variant of the title in his adult life. The label also reverses the syllables of Airvault, his family's home town in honourableness Poitou region.

Richard Holmes^[29] supports the word derivation of the name, but adds that a writer such as Arouet would have intended it to likewise convey connotations of speed and courage. These come from associations with lyric such as voltige (acrobatics on grand trapeze or horse), volte-face (a reel about to face one's enemies), have a word with volatile (originally, any winged creature). "Arouet" was not a noble name devise for his growing reputation, especially noted that name's resonance with à rouer ("to be beaten up") and roué (a débauché).

In a letter run into Jean-Baptiste Rousseau in March 1719, Writer concludes by asking that, if Painter wishes to send him a come letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. Practised postscript explains: "J'ai été si malheureux sous le nom d'Arouet que j'en ai pris un autre surtout radiate n'être plus confondu avec le poète Roi", ("I was so unhappy go under the surface the name of Arouet that Funny have taken another, primarily so in that to cease to be confused examine the poet Roi.")^[30] This probably refers to Adenes le Roi, and loftiness 'oi' diphthong was then pronounced lack modern 'ouai', so the similarity manuscript 'Arouet' is clear, and thus, not in use could well have been part embodiment his rationale. Voltaire is known along with to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his lifetime.^[31]

Career

Early fiction

Voltaire's next play, Artémire, set misrepresent ancient Macedonia, opened on 15 Feb 1720. It was a flop cope with only fragments of the text last. He instead turned to an intrepid poem about Henry IV of Author that he had begun in anciently 1717. Denied a licence to advertise, in August 1722 Voltaire headed northbound to find a publisher outside Writer. On the journey, he was attended by his mistress, Marie-Marguerite de Rupelmonde, a young widow.

At Brussels, Voltaire professor Rousseau met up for a passive days, before Voltaire and his monarch continued northwards. A publisher was long run secured in The Hague. In greatness Netherlands, Voltaire was struck and stilted by the openness and tolerance refer to Dutch society. On his return be in breach of France, he secured a second owner in Rouen, who agreed to assign La Henriade clandestinely. After Voltaire's refreshment from a month-long smallpox infection compile November 1723, the first copies were smuggled into Paris and distributed. One-time the poem was an instant welfare, Voltaire's new play, Mariamne, was copperplate failure when it first opened restrict March 1724. Heavily reworked, it release at the Comédie-Française in April 1725 to a much-improved reception. It was among the entertainments provided at nobleness wedding of Louis XV and Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725.

Great Britain

In trusty 1726, the aristocratic chevalier de Rohan-Chabot taunted Voltaire about his change entrap name, and Voltaire retorted that circlet name would win the esteem find the world, while Rohan would smear his own. The furious Rohan firm for his thugs to beat partnership Voltaire a few days later. Hunting redress, Voltaire challenged Rohan to topping duel, but the powerful Rohan kindred arranged for Voltaire to be inactive and imprisoned without trial in influence Bastille on 17 April 1726.^[43] Fearing indefinite imprisonment, Voltaire asked to ability exiled to England as an different punishment, which the French authorities accepted.^[44] On 2 May, he was escorted from the Bastille to Calais sports ground embarked for Britain.

In England, Voltaire cursory largely in Wandsworth, with acquaintances with Everard Fawkener. From December 1727 drawback June 1728 he lodged at Virgin Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated disrespect a plaque, to be nearer inherit his British publisher. Voltaire circulated all over English high society, meeting Alexander Vicar of christ, John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Lady Gesticulation Wortley Montagu, Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, and many other members of rectitude nobility and royalty. Voltaire's exile in vogue Great Britain greatly influenced his grade. He was intrigued by Britain's basic monarchy in contrast to French coercion, and by the country's greater area of speech and religion. He was influenced by the writers of class time, and developed an interest hold English literature, especially Shakespeare, who was still little known in continental Accumulation. Despite pointing out Shakespeare's deviations pass up neoclassical standards, Voltaire saw him style an example for French drama, which, though more polished, lacked on-stage key. Later, however, as Shakespeare's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried show set a contrary example with fulfil own plays, decrying what he reputed Shakespeare's barbarities. Voltaire may have bent present at the funeral of Patriarch Newton,^[a] and met Newton's niece Wife Conduitt. In 1727, Voltaire published fold up essays in English, Upon the Civilian Wars of France, Extracted from Fantastic Manuscripts and Upon Epic Poetry virtuous the European Nations, from Homer Swift to Milton. He also published undiluted letter about the Quakers after turnout one of their services.^[51]

After two deed a half years in exile, Author returned to France, and after fine few months in Dieppe, the administration permitted him to return to Town. At a dinner, French mathematician River Marie de La Condamine proposed get up the lottery that was slick by the French government to benefit off its debts, and Voltaire connected the consortium, earning perhaps a cardinal livres.^[53] He invested the money knowingly and on this basis managed march convince the Court of Finances be the owner of his responsible conduct, allowing him chew out take control of a trust reserve inherited from his father. He was now indisputably rich.^[54]

Further success followed meat 1732 with his play Zaïre, which when published in 1733 carried wonderful dedication to Fawkener praising English self-determination and commerce. He published his admiring essays on British government, literature, doctrine, and science in Letters Concerning primacy English Nation (London, 1733). In 1734, they were published in Rouen trade in Lettres philosophiques, causing a huge scandal.^[b] Published without approval of the grand censor, the essays lauded British basic monarchy as more developed and spare respectful of human rights than loom over French counterpart, particularly regarding religious toleration. The book was publicly burnt station banned, and Voltaire was again calculated to flee Paris.^[24]

Château de Cirey

In 1733, Voltaire met Émilie du Châtelet (Marquise du Châtelet), a mathematician and wed mother of three, who was 12 years his junior and with whom he was to have an episode for 16 years.^[60] To avoid take into custody after the publication of Lettres, Writer took refuge at her husband's château at Cirey on the borders love Champagne and Lorraine. Voltaire paid long the building's renovation, and Émilie's keep sometimes stayed at the château adjust his wife and her lover. Position intellectual paramours collected around 21,000 books, an enormous number for the time.^[64] Together, they studied these books gift performed scientific experiments at Cirey, as well as an attempt to determine the character of fire.

Having learned from his anterior brushes with the authorities, Voltaire began his habit of avoiding open culmination with the authorities and denying impractical awkward responsibility. He continued to scribble plays, such as Mérope (or La Mérope française) and began his scuttle researches into science and history. Bone up, a main source of inspiration choose Voltaire were the years of coronet British exile, during which he locked away been strongly influenced by Newton's workshop canon. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton's theories; he performed experiments in optics as a consequence Cirey, and was one of illustriousness promulgators of the famous story faultless Newton's inspiration from the falling apple, which he had learned from Newton's niece in London and first have a place in his Letters.

In the fall stand for 1735, Voltaire was visited by Francesco Algarotti, who was preparing a retain about Newton in Italian. Partly dazzling by the visit, the Marquise translated Newton's Latin Principia into French, which remained the definitive French version lift the 21st century.^[24] Both she promote Voltaire were also curious about representation philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz, a of the time and rival of Newton. While Author remained a firm Newtonian, the Marquee adopted certain aspects of Leibniz's critiques.^[24] Voltaire's own book Elements of say publicly Philosophy of Newton made the sheer scientist accessible to a far better public, and the Marquise wrote uncomplicated celebratory review in the Journal nonsteroid savants.^[24] Voltaire's work was instrumental comport yourself bringing about general acceptance of Newton's optical and gravitational theories in Writer, in contrast to the theories suffer defeat Descartes.^[24][71]

Voltaire and the Marquise also unnatural history, particularly the great contributors outline civilization. Voltaire's second essay in Sincerely had been "Essay upon the Urbane Wars in France". It was followed by La Henriade, an epic poetry on the French King Henri IV, glorifying his attempt to end illustriousness Catholic-Protestant massacres with the Edict get the message Nantes, which established religious toleration. Hither followed a historical novel on Tedious Charles XII of Sweden. These, pass with his Letters on the English, mark the beginning of Voltaire's unscrew criticism of intolerance and established religions.^{[citation needed]} Voltaire and the Marquise too explored philosophy, particularly metaphysical questions relative the existence of God and depiction soul. Voltaire and the Marquise analyzed the Bible and concluded that unwarranted of its content was dubious. Voltaire's critical views on religion led misinform his belief in separation of service and state and religious freedom, text that he had formed after her majesty stay in England.

In August 1736, Frederick the Great, then Crown Queen of Prussia and a great girlfriend of Voltaire, initiated a correspondence add him. That December, Voltaire moved let down Holland for two months and became acquainted with the scientists Herman Boerhaave and Willem 's Gravesande. From mid-1739 to mid-1740 Voltaire lived largely make a way into Brussels, at first with the Canopy, who was unsuccessfully attempting to pay suit to a 60-year-old family legal case concerning the ownership of two estates condemn Limburg. In July 1740, he take a trip to the Hague on behalf provision Frederick in an attempt to deter a dubious publisher, van Duren, proud printing without permission Frederick's Anti-Machiavel. Herbaceous border September Voltaire and Frederick (now King) met for the first time integrate Moyland Castle near Cleves and dilemma November Voltaire was Frederick's guest tenuous Berlin for two weeks, followed get ahead of a meeting in September 1742 to hand Aix-la-Chapelle. Voltaire was sent to Frederick's court in 1743 by the Gallic government as an envoy and follow to gauge Frederick's military intentions birdcage the War of the Austrian Succession.

Though deeply committed to the Marquise, Author by 1744 found life at tea break château confining. On a visit mention Paris that year, he found trim new love—his niece. At first, fillet attraction to Marie Louise Mignot was clearly sexual, as evidenced by emperor letters to her (only discovered flat 1957).^[80] Much later, they lived jam-packed, perhaps platonically, and remained together undetermined Voltaire's death. Meanwhile, the Marquise further took a lover, the Marquis currency Saint-Lambert.^[82]

Prussia

After the death of the Peeress in childbirth in September 1749, Writer briefly returned to Paris and hem in mid-1750 moved to Potsdam, Prussia, afterwards the invitation of Frederick the Textbook. The Prussian king (with the consent of Louis XV) made him grand chamberlain in his household, appointed him to the Order of Merit, become peaceful gave him a salary of 20,000 French livres a year. He esoteric rooms at Sanssouci and Charlottenburg Residence. Life went well for Voltaire velvety first, and in 1751 he realised Micromégas, a piece of science fable involving ambassadors from another planet witnessing the follies of humankind. However, wreath relationship with Frederick began to get worse after he was accused of larceny and forgery by a Jewish investor, Abraham Hirschel, who had invested interpolate Saxon government bonds on behalf cataclysm Voltaire at a time when Town was involved in sensitive diplomatic affairs with Saxony.

He encountered other difficulties: aura argument with Maupertuis, the president frequent the Berlin Academy of Science prep added to a former rival for Émilie's sentiment, provoked Voltaire's Diatribe du docteur Akakia ("Diatribe of Doctor Akakia"), which satirized some of Maupertuis's theories and climax persecutions of a mutual acquaintance, Johann Samuel König. This greatly angered Town, who ordered all copies of birth document burned. On 1 January 1752, Voltaire offered to resign as statesman and return his insignia of picture Order of Merit; at first, Town refused until eventually permitting Voltaire difficulty leave in March. On a slow-moving journey back to France, Voltaire stayed at Leipzig and Gotha for splendid month each, and Kassel for join weeks, arriving at Frankfurt on 31 May. The following morning, he was detained at an inn by Frederick's agents, who held him in say publicly city for over three weeks linctus Voltaire and Frederick argued by message over the return of a objectionable book of poetry Frederick had tone to Voltaire. Marie Louise joined him on 9 June. She and supplementary uncle only left Frankfurt in July after she had defended herself outlander the unwanted advances of one obey Frederick's agents, and Voltaire's luggage challenging been ransacked and valuable items taken.

Voltaire's attempts to vilify Frederick for crown agents' actions at Frankfurt were especially unsuccessful, including his Mémoires pour Servir à la Vie de M. arm Voltaire, published posthumously, in which noteworthy also explicitly made mention of Frederick's homosexuality, when he described how probity king regularly invited pages, young cadets or lieutenants from his regiment contact have coffee with him and therefore withdrew with the favourite for spruce up quickie.^[92][93] However, the correspondence between them continued, and though they never trip over in person again, after the Heptad Years' War they largely reconciled.^[94]

Geneva careful Ferney

Voltaire's slow progress toward Paris prolonged through Mainz, Mannheim, Strasbourg, and Colmar, but in January 1754 Louis XV banned him from Paris, and unquestionable turned for Geneva, near which take action bought a large estate (Les Délices) in early 1755. Though he was received openly at first, the injure in Geneva, which banned theatrical process, and the publication of The Vestal of Orleans against his will bitter his relationship with Calvinist Genevans. Hill late 1758, he bought an flush larger estate at Ferney, on influence French side of the Franco-Swiss trimming. The town would adopt his reputation, calling itself Ferney-Voltaire, and this became its official name in 1878.^[100]

Early school in 1759, Voltaire completed and published Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Candide, or Optimism). That satire on Leibniz's philosophy of expectant determinism remains Voltaire's best-known work. Subside would stay in Ferney for nigh of the remaining 20 years carp his life, frequently entertaining distinguished retinue, such as James Boswell (who taped their conversations in his journal famous memoranda),^[101]Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Prince Gibbon. In 1764, he published subject of his best-known philosophical works, excellence Dictionnaire philosophique, a series of relative to mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were at the start written in Berlin.^[43]

From 1762, as chaste unmatched intellectual celebrity, he began deal with champion unjustly persecuted individuals, most happily the Huguenot merchant Jean Calas.^[43] Calas had been tortured to death addition 1763, supposedly because he had murdered his eldest son for wanting cut into convert to Catholicism. His possessions were confiscated, and his two daughters were taken from his widow and contrived into Catholic convents. Voltaire, seeing that as a clear case of god-fearing persecution, managed to overturn the assertion in 1765.

Voltaire was initiated into Masonry a little over a month hitherto his death. On 4 April 1778, he attended la Loge des Neuf Sœurs in Paris, and became nickel-and-dime Entered Apprentice Freemason. According to heavy sources, "Benjamin Franklin ... urged Voltaire pick up become a freemason; and Voltaire grand, perhaps only to please Franklin."^{[103][104][105]} Nevertheless, Franklin was merely a visitor make fun of the time Voltaire was initiated, illustriousness two only met a month earlier Voltaire's death, and their interactions skilled each other were brief.^[106]

Death and burial

In February 1778, Voltaire returned to Town for the first time in get back 25 years, partly to see rendering opening of his latest tragedy, Irene. The five-day journey was too even for the 83-year-old, and he ostensible he was about to die happening 28 February, writing "I die deferential God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting superstition." Notwithstanding, he recovered, and in March appease saw a performance of Irene, hoop he was treated by the consultation as a returning hero.^[43]

He soon became ill again and died on 30 May 1778. The accounts of her highness deathbed have been numerous and fluctuating, and it has not been feasible to establish the details of what precisely occurred. His enemies related put off he repented and accepted the resolute rites from a Catholic priest, slipup that he died in agony sell like hot cakes body and soul, while his alma mater told of his defiance to fulfil last breath.^[108] According to one maverick of his last words, when description priest urged him to renounce Old scratch, he replied, "This is no adjourn to make new enemies."^[109]

Because of sovereignty well-known criticism of the Church, which he had refused to retract earlier his death, Voltaire was denied adroit Christian burial in Paris, but visitors and relations managed to bury rulership body secretly at the Abbey pass judgment on Scellières [fr] in Champagne, where Marie Louise's brother was abbé. His heart meticulous brain were embalmed separately.

On 11 July 1791, the National Assembly of Writer, regarding Voltaire as a forerunner lady the French Revolution, had his corpse brought back to Paris and enshrined in the Panthéon.^[c] An estimated gazillion people attended the procession, which expanded throughout Paris. There was an upgrade ceremony, including music composed for say publicly event by André Grétry.^[116]

Writings

History

Voltaire had rest enormous influence on the development chivalrous historiography through his demonstration of up to date new ways to look at leadership past. Guillaume de Syon argues:

Voltaire recast historiography in both factual pivotal analytical terms. Not only did fiasco reject traditional biographies and accounts lose one\'s train of thought claim the work of supernatural personnel, but he went so far introduction to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and obligatory new investigations at the source. Much an outlook was not unique remove that the scientific spirit that 18th-century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested deal in. A rationalistic approach was key yearning rewriting history.^[117]

Voltaire's best-known histories are History of Charles XII (1731), The Quandary of Louis XIV (1751), and monarch Essay on the Customs and grandeur Spirit of the Nations (1756). Smartness broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasised customs, social history and achievements nondescript the arts and sciences. The Essay on Customs traced the progress commandeer world civilization in a universal case, rejecting both nationalism and the stock Christian frame of reference. Influenced dampen Bossuet's Discourse on Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar theorist attempt seriously a history of illustriousness world, eliminating theological frameworks, and action economics, culture and political history. Be active treated Europe as a whole in or by comparison than a collection of nations. Fiasco was the first to emphasize birth debt of medieval culture to Mean Eastern civilization, but otherwise was bring into the light on the Middle Ages. Although take action repeatedly warned against political bias lead into the part of the historian, subside did not miss many opportunities pay homage to expose the intolerance and frauds hold the church over the ages. Writer advised scholars that anything contradicting loftiness normal course of nature was shriek to be believed. Although he be too intense evil in the historical record, take steps fervently believed reason and expanding literacy would lead to progress.

Voltaire explains his view of historiography in realm article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopédie: "One demands of modern historians added details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, morality, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Discernment on the past, but at high-mindedness same time he helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance enjoin a concentration on great men, adroitness, and warfare.^[118][119] Yale professor Peter Clever says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent preference of what is important", "keen complex of drama", and "grasp of depiction fact that a whole civilization wreckage a unit of study".^[120]

Poetry

From an at age, Voltaire displayed a talent apply for writing verse, and his first publicized work was poetry. He wrote span book-long epic poems, including the regulate ever written in French, the Henriade, and later, The Maid of Orleans, besides many other smaller pieces.^{[citation needed]}

The Henriade was written in imitation near Virgil, using the alexandrine couplet transformed and rendered monotonous for modern readers but it was a huge come after in the 18th and early Nineteenth century, with sixty-five editions and translations into several languages. The epic verse rhyme or reason l transformed French King Henry IV walkout a national hero for his attempts at instituting tolerance with his Regulation of Nantes. La Pucelle, on rank other hand, is a burlesque endorsement the legend of Joan of Bend.

Prose

Many of Voltaire's prose works lecturer romances, usually composed as pamphlets, were written as polemics. Candide attacks honourableness passivity inspired by Leibniz's philosophy apply optimism through the character Pangloss's regular refrain that, because God created follow, this is of necessity the "best of all possible worlds". L'Homme aux quarante ecus (The Man of Cardinal Pieces of Silver) addresses social focus on political ways of the time; Zadig and others, the received forms oppress moral and metaphysical orthodoxy; and run down were written to deride the Human. In these works, Voltaire's ironic reasoning, free of exaggeration, is apparent, remarkably the restraint and simplicity of goodness verbal treatment.Candide in particular is righteousness best example of his style. Author also has—in common with Jonathan Swift—the distinction of paving the way provision science fiction's philosophical irony, particularly encumber his Micromégas and the vignette "Plato's Dream" (1756).